Questões de Inglês

An Economic History of Patent Institutions


Scholars such as Max Weber and Douglass North have suggested that intellectual property systems had an important
impact on the course of economic development. However, questions from other eras are still current today, ranging from
whether patents and copyrights constitute ideal policies toward intellectual inventions and their philosophical rationale to the
growing concerns of international political economy. Throughout their history, patent and copyright regimes have confronted
and accommodated technological innovations that were no less significant and contentious for their time than those of the
twenty-first century.
The British Patent System
Britain is noted for the establishment of a patent system which has been in continuous operation for a longer period than
any other in the world. English monarchs frequently used patents to reward favorites with privileges, such as monopolies over
trade that increased the retail prices of commodities. It was not until the seventeenth century that patents were associated
entirely with awards to inventors, when Section 6 of the Statute of Monopolies repealed the practice of royal monopoly grants
to all except patentees of inventions.
The British patent system established significant barriers in the form of prohibitively high costs that limited access to
property rights in invention to a privileged few. Patent fees provided an important source of revenues for the Crown and its
employees, and created a class of administrators who had strong incentives to block proposed reforms.
In addition to the monetary costs, complicated administrative procedures that inventors had to follow made transactions
costs also high. Thus nation-wide lobbies of manufacturers and patentees expressed dissatisfaction with the operation of the
British patent system. However, it was not until after the Crystal Palace Exhibition in 1851 that their concerns were finally
addressed, in an effort to meet the burgeoning competition from the United States. In 1852 the efforts of numerous societies
and of individual engineers, inventors and manufacturers that had been made over many decades were finally rewarded.
Parliament approved the Patent Law Amendment Act, which authorized the first major adjustment of the system in two
centuries.
However, the adjustments made at that time were not completely satisfactory. One source of dissatisfaction that endured
until the end of the nineteenth century was the state of the common law regarding patents. British patents were granted "by the
grace of the Crown" and therefore were subject to any restrictions that the government cared to impose. According to the
statutes, as a matter of national expediency, patents were to be granted if "they be not contrary to the law, nor mischievous to
the State, by raising prices of commodities at home, or to the hurt of trade, or generally inconvenient." The Crown possessed
the ability to revoke any patents that were deemed inconvenient or contrary to public policy. [...]
The Patent System in the United States
The United States stands out as having established one of the most successful patent systems in the world. American
industrial supremacy has frequently been credited to its favorable treatment of inventors and the inducements held out for
inventive activity. The first Article of the U.S. Constitution included a clause to "promote the Progress of Science and the
useful Arts by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and
Discoveries." Congress complied by passing a patent statute in April 1790. In 1836 the United States created the first modern
patent institution in the world, a system whose features differed in significant respects from those of other major countries.
The primary feature of the "American system" is that all applications are subject to an examination for conformity with
the laws and for novelty. An examination system was set in place in 1790, when a select committee consisting of the Secretary
of State (Thomas Jefferson), the Attorney General and the Secretary of War scrutinized the applications. These duties proved to
be too time-consuming for highly ranked officials who had other onerous duties, so three years later it was replaced by a
registration system. The validity of patents was left up to the district courts, which had the power to set in motion a process that
could end in the repeal of the patent.
Another important feature of the American patent system is that it was based on the presumption that social welfare
coincided with the individual welfare of inventors. Accordingly, legislators rejected restrictions on the rights of American
inventors.
Nevertheless, economists such as Joseph Schumpeter have linked market concentration and innovation, and patent rights
are often felt to encourage the establishment of monopoly enterprises. Thus, an important aspect of the enforcement of patents
and intellectual property in general depends on competition or antitrust policies. The attitudes of the judiciary towards patent
conflicts are primarily shaped by their interpretation of the monopoly aspect of the patent grant. The American judiciary in the
early nineteenth century did not recognize patents as monopolies, arguing that patentees added to social welfare through
innovations which had never existed before, whereas monopolists secured to themselves rights that already belong to the
public.[...]

B. Zorina Khan. In: Internet: (adapted).


According to the information provided by text, judge the items below.

The new class of administrators that emerged from the patent fees system would not agree with the high costs of the patent procedure.

A resposta correta é:

It is one of the most pressing questions of our time:
what is the relationship between financial and environmental
meltdown? Are the two crises the same thing, needing to be
dealt with together? Or do we, as even some business leaders
suggest, have to fix the environment before we can fix the
economy? A slew of books, ebooks, pamphlets and journals
are tackling this thorny question.

You might expect a strong “yes” from the greens to
fixing the environment ahead of the economy. And in The
Environmental Debt: The hidden costs of a changing global
economy, long-time Greenpeace activist Amy Larkin does
make a cogent argument for this. The high costs of coping with
extreme weather, pollution and declining resources are, she
says, catching up with capitalism. Our carefree attitude to the
“externalities” of wealth generation has run up an
environmental debt that is loading unsustainable financial debt
on us all.

But environmentalists are not the only ones making
the link. In Wall Street and the City, there is similar talk that
the worst fears of environmentalists are coming to pass. As
shortages of natural resources push up prices, a looming
resource crunch is manifested in market meltdown.

Paul Donovan and Julie Hudson, economists for the
Swiss bank UBS, agree. They argue that “there is a second
credit crunch”, an environmental one. By ransacking global
resources and enfeebling ecosystems, the authors say, we are
drawing down environmental credit as surely as reckless
spending on a credit card draws down financial credit. The two
crunches have “a symbiotic relationship”, they argue: “The
party has to stop.”
The synergies between financial and environmental
crunches may be complex, but at root, many economists argue
that reckless consumption, driven by easy credit, helped fuel
financial crisis. Environmentalists agree that the same
consumer binge drove up environmental debt.

F. Pearce. What do we fix first – environment or

economy? Newscientist. July 8th, 2013 (adapted).


Based on the text, judge if the items below are right (C) or wrong (E).

Several bank owners claim the economic crisis should be solved first.

A resposta correta é:

Intellectual Property
Industrial property legislation is part of the wider body of law known as intellectual property. Intellectual property relates to

items of information or knowledge, which can be incorporated in tangible objects at the same time in an unlimited number of copies at
different locations anywhere in the world. The property is not in those copies but in the information or knowledge reflected in them.
Intellectual property rights are also characterized by certain limitations, such as limited duration in the case of copyright and patents.
The importance of protecting intellectual property was first recognized in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial

Property in 1883 and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works in 1886. Both treaties are administered
by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
Countries generally have laws to protect intellectual property for two main reasons. One is to give statutory expression to the

moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and to the rights of the public in accessing those creations. The second is to
promote creativity and the dissemination and application of its results, and to encourage fair trade, which would contribute to
economic and social development.
Intellectual property is usually divided into two branches, namely industrial property and copyright.
Copyright relates to artistic creations, such as poems, novels, music, paintings, and cinematographic works. The expression

copyright refers to the main act which, in respect of literary and artistic creations, may be made only by the author or with his
authorization.
The broad application of the term gindustrialh is clearly set out in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property

(Article 1 (3)): gIndustrial property shall be understood in the broadest sense and shall apply not only to industry and commerce
proper, but likewise to agricultural and extractive industries and to all manufactured or natural products, for example, wines, grain,
tobacco leaf, fruit, cattle, minerals, mineral waters, beer, flowers, and flour.h
Industrial property takes a range of forms. These include patents to protect inventions; and industrial designs, which are

aesthetic creations determining the appearance of industrial products. Industrial property also covers trademarks, service marks,
layout-designs of integrated circuits, commercial names and designations, as well as geographical indications, and protection against
unfair competition. In some of these, the aspect of intellectual creation, although existent, is less clearly defined. What counts here is
that the object of industrial property typically consists of signs transmitting information, in particular to consumers, as regards
products and services offered on the market. Protection is directed against unauthorized use of such signs likely to mislead consumers,
and against misleading practices in general.

Understanding Industrial Property. World Intellectual Property Organization – WIPO,

p. 3-5. In: Internet: (adapted).


According to the text above, judge the following items.

The term "property" can be replaced by the word propriety, without distorting the general meaning of the text.

A resposta correta é:

It is one of the most pressing questions of our time:
what is the relationship between financial and environmental
meltdown? Are the two crises the same thing, needing to be
dealt with together? Or do we, as even some business leaders
suggest, have to fix the environment before we can fix the
economy? A slew of books, ebooks, pamphlets and journals
are tackling this thorny question.

You might expect a strong “yes” from the greens to
fixing the environment ahead of the economy. And in The
Environmental Debt: The hidden costs of a changing global
economy, long-time Greenpeace activist Amy Larkin does
make a cogent argument for this. The high costs of coping with
extreme weather, pollution and declining resources are, she
says, catching up with capitalism. Our carefree attitude to the
“externalities” of wealth generation has run up an
environmental debt that is loading unsustainable financial debt
on us all.

But environmentalists are not the only ones making
the link. In Wall Street and the City, there is similar talk that
the worst fears of environmentalists are coming to pass. As
shortages of natural resources push up prices, a looming
resource crunch is manifested in market meltdown.

Paul Donovan and Julie Hudson, economists for the
Swiss bank UBS, agree. They argue that “there is a second
credit crunch”, an environmental one. By ransacking global
resources and enfeebling ecosystems, the authors say, we are
drawing down environmental credit as surely as reckless
spending on a credit card draws down financial credit. The two
crunches have “a symbiotic relationship”, they argue: “The
party has to stop.”
The synergies between financial and environmental
crunches may be complex, but at root, many economists argue
that reckless consumption, driven by easy credit, helped fuel
financial crisis. Environmentalists agree that the same
consumer binge drove up environmental debt.

F. Pearce. What do we fix first – environment or

economy? Newscientist. July 8th, 2013 (adapted).


Based on the text, judge if the items below are right (C) or wrong (E).

Amy Larkin believes the worldwide scarcity of resources is affecting the world"s economy.

A resposta correta é:

Intellectual Property
Industrial property legislation is part of the wider body of law known as intellectual property. Intellectual property relates to

items of information or knowledge, which can be incorporated in tangible objects at the same time in an unlimited number of copies at
different locations anywhere in the world. The property is not in those copies but in the information or knowledge reflected in them.
Intellectual property rights are also characterized by certain limitations, such as limited duration in the case of copyright and patents.
The importance of protecting intellectual property was first recognized in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial

Property in 1883 and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works in 1886. Both treaties are administered
by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
Countries generally have laws to protect intellectual property for two main reasons. One is to give statutory expression to the

moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and to the rights of the public in accessing those creations. The second is to
promote creativity and the dissemination and application of its results, and to encourage fair trade, which would contribute to
economic and social development.
Intellectual property is usually divided into two branches, namely industrial property and copyright.
Copyright relates to artistic creations, such as poems, novels, music, paintings, and cinematographic works. The expression

copyright refers to the main act which, in respect of literary and artistic creations, may be made only by the author or with his
authorization.
The broad application of the term gindustrialh is clearly set out in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property

(Article 1 (3)): gIndustrial property shall be understood in the broadest sense and shall apply not only to industry and commerce
proper, but likewise to agricultural and extractive industries and to all manufactured or natural products, for example, wines, grain,
tobacco leaf, fruit, cattle, minerals, mineral waters, beer, flowers, and flour.h
Industrial property takes a range of forms. These include patents to protect inventions; and industrial designs, which are

aesthetic creations determining the appearance of industrial products. Industrial property also covers trademarks, service marks,
layout-designs of integrated circuits, commercial names and designations, as well as geographical indications, and protection against
unfair competition. In some of these, the aspect of intellectual creation, although existent, is less clearly defined. What counts here is
that the object of industrial property typically consists of signs transmitting information, in particular to consumers, as regards
products and services offered on the market. Protection is directed against unauthorized use of such signs likely to mislead consumers,
and against misleading practices in general.

Understanding Industrial Property. World Intellectual Property Organization – WIPO,

p. 3-5. In: Internet: (adapted).


According to the text above, judge the following items.

Copyright and Industrial Property are normally considered as the two constituents of Intellectual Property.

A resposta correta é:

The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines
diplomacy as “(…) the management of relations between
countries (…) art of or skill in dealing with people; tact (…)”.
Indeed it is the art of convincing others to perceive things your
way, or at least to have second thoughts about theirs. It is the
combination of logic and science on the one hand with the gift
of proper language packaging and presentation necessary to
convince others.

The power of language rests on the fact that it
contains ideas: and ideas are, according to Plato, more
enduring, indeed more permanent than matter. Ideas can be
suppressed, or go underground but unlike a statue or any other
material things they cannot be shattered. They can only be met
and dealt with by other ideas. Historically it is the magic of
words that bewitched, enthralled and sometimes intoxicated
people and led them to great or mean deeds. The language of
diplomacy, often like poetry, has the ability to move people
from mood to mood. Whether demagogy or whether giving
expression to noble ideologies, theories, or even religious
creeds, ordinary language or that of diplomacy has a
momentum and an inner driving force that is ageless.

K.S. Abu Jaber, Language and Diplomacy. In:

J. Kurbalija; H. Slavi (Eds.) Language and

Diplomacy, p. 53. Malta: DiploProjects, 2001.


In relation to the pronouns shown in bold in the text above, judge if the items below are right (C) or wrong (E).

The pronoun "that" [l. refers to "language" [l..

A resposta correta é:

Intellectual Property
Industrial property legislation is part of the wider body of law known as intellectual property. Intellectual property relates to

items of information or knowledge, which can be incorporated in tangible objects at the same time in an unlimited number of copies at
different locations anywhere in the world. The property is not in those copies but in the information or knowledge reflected in them.
Intellectual property rights are also characterized by certain limitations, such as limited duration in the case of copyright and patents.
The importance of protecting intellectual property was first recognized in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial

Property in 1883 and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works in 1886. Both treaties are administered
by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
Countries generally have laws to protect intellectual property for two main reasons. One is to give statutory expression to the

moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and to the rights of the public in accessing those creations. The second is to
promote creativity and the dissemination and application of its results, and to encourage fair trade, which would contribute to
economic and social development.
Intellectual property is usually divided into two branches, namely industrial property and copyright.
Copyright relates to artistic creations, such as poems, novels, music, paintings, and cinematographic works. The expression

copyright refers to the main act which, in respect of literary and artistic creations, may be made only by the author or with his
authorization.
The broad application of the term gindustrialh is clearly set out in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property

(Article 1 (3)): gIndustrial property shall be understood in the broadest sense and shall apply not only to industry and commerce
proper, but likewise to agricultural and extractive industries and to all manufactured or natural products, for example, wines, grain,
tobacco leaf, fruit, cattle, minerals, mineral waters, beer, flowers, and flour.h
Industrial property takes a range of forms. These include patents to protect inventions; and industrial designs, which are

aesthetic creations determining the appearance of industrial products. Industrial property also covers trademarks, service marks,
layout-designs of integrated circuits, commercial names and designations, as well as geographical indications, and protection against
unfair competition. In some of these, the aspect of intellectual creation, although existent, is less clearly defined. What counts here is
that the object of industrial property typically consists of signs transmitting information, in particular to consumers, as regards
products and services offered on the market. Protection is directed against unauthorized use of such signs likely to mislead consumers,
and against misleading practices in general.

Understanding Industrial Property. World Intellectual Property Organization – WIPO,

p. 3-5. In: Internet: (adapted).


According to the text above, judge the following items.

The international organization WIPO is responsible for enacting legislation intended to regulate intellectual property in every country.

A resposta correta é:

The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines
diplomacy as “(…) the management of relations between
countries (…) art of or skill in dealing with people; tact (…)”.
Indeed it is the art of convincing others to perceive things your
way, or at least to have second thoughts about theirs. It is the
combination of logic and science on the one hand with the gift
of proper language packaging and presentation necessary to
convince others.

The power of language rests on the fact that it
contains ideas: and ideas are, according to Plato, more
enduring, indeed more permanent than matter. Ideas can be
suppressed, or go underground but unlike a statue or any other
material things they cannot be shattered. They can only be met
and dealt with by other ideas. Historically it is the magic of
words that bewitched, enthralled and sometimes intoxicated
people and led them to great or mean deeds. The language of
diplomacy, often like poetry, has the ability to move people
from mood to mood. Whether demagogy or whether giving
expression to noble ideologies, theories, or even religious
creeds, ordinary language or that of diplomacy has a
momentum and an inner driving force that is ageless.

K.S. Abu Jaber, Language and Diplomacy. In:

J. Kurbalija; H. Slavi (Eds.) Language and

Diplomacy, p. 53. Malta: DiploProjects, 2001.


In relation to the pronouns shown in bold in the text above, judge if the items below are right (C) or wrong (E).

The pronoun "theirs" [l. refers to "others" [l..

A resposta correta é:

The difficulty for health policy makers the world over
is this: it is simply not possible to promote healthier lifestyles
through presidential decree or through being overprotective
towards people and the way they choose to live. Recent history
has proved that one-size-fits-all solutions are no good when
public health challenges vary from one area of the country to
the next. But we cannot sit back while, in spite of all this, so
many people are suffering such severe lifestyle-driven ill health
and such acute health inequalities.

Internet: (adapted).


In the text above,

the adjective "one-size-fits-all" (L.5) means long-term and drastic.

A resposta correta é:

The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines
diplomacy as “(…) the management of relations between
countries (…) art of or skill in dealing with people; tact (…)”.
Indeed it is the art of convincing others to perceive things your
way, or at least to have second thoughts about theirs. It is the
combination of logic and science on the one hand with the gift
of proper language packaging and presentation necessary to
convince others.

The power of language rests on the fact that it
contains ideas: and ideas are, according to Plato, more
enduring, indeed more permanent than matter. Ideas can be
suppressed, or go underground but unlike a statue or any other
material things they cannot be shattered. They can only be met
and dealt with by other ideas. Historically it is the magic of
words that bewitched, enthralled and sometimes intoxicated
people and led them to great or mean deeds. The language of
diplomacy, often like poetry, has the ability to move people
from mood to mood. Whether demagogy or whether giving
expression to noble ideologies, theories, or even religious
creeds, ordinary language or that of diplomacy has a
momentum and an inner driving force that is ageless.

K.S. Abu Jaber, Language and Diplomacy. In:

J. Kurbalija; H. Slavi (Eds.) Language and

Diplomacy, p. 53. Malta: DiploProjects, 2001.


In relation to the pronouns shown in bold in the text above, judge if the items below are right (C) or wrong (E).

The pronoun "It" [l. refers to "diplomacy" [l..

A resposta correta é: